The good life Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The good life - Essay Example d companies that take part in industrialization and manufacturing should take responsibility of controlling the effects of climate change by bearing the negative external costs associated with climate change.1 The richer nations and large manufacturing industries get involved in massive industrial manufacturing, hence leading to massive emissions and pollution that are responsible for the ever increasing amount of green house gases. To maintain normalcy and good life, the discounting rate concept must be proportionately applied. The rich countries that account for the larger share of the global emissions must bear the greatest costs associated with environmental degradation. In order to save the future generations from suffering the harmful effects of the present global climatic change, they must learn to reduce such risks by avoiding activities that negatively affect the environment.2 This can only be achieved by seeking expert advice from economists who would advise them on the cost-benefits analysis of their industrial and manufacturing activities. From an ethical point of view, the economists must take into account the discounting rates that are payable by the environmental polluters. Economists will, therefore, always advice on the importance of reducing the possibility of adverse effects such as environmental pollution from spreading into the future. This implies that the present generation must sacrifice part of its consumption in order to mitigate the impacts climatic

Literature Review on Group Creativity Theory Essay

Literature Review on Group Creativity Theory - Essay Example rt in their field and have strong knowledge to properly guide the design team and create an environment that is conducive to creativity, innovation and stimulation of new ideas (Paulus & Nijstad, 2003). In other words, the art director serves as a project manager, designer and coordinator of all design activities in order to achieve the best possible end-product for the customer. Without a strong art director, a design team may not have clear direction or have the tools necessary to instill creativity and innovation for all projects. Perhaps the most difficult challenge for the art director is to implement a creative environment while balancing the challenges of group creativity theory and all of the variables associated with group dynamics. There are many external, social and psychological factors that can impact a design team’s ability to think creatively. Furthermore, the politics of a creative team can impact the group creativity because individuals begin to compete over whose ideas are more creative. One issue that can arise is an over-abundance of ideas that can actually reduce the positive creativity that is desired within a group collectivity situation (Goncalo & Staw, 2006). In this situation, it is highly important for the art director to utilize the control and organizational power awarded by the position to continue to harbor good ideas while reducing the opportunity for too many ideas to have a negative impact on group creativity. In the end, a choice must be made and the group must push forw ard to produce a strong website that is both creative and to the customer’s approval. Due to socio-psychological issues stemming from criticism in the workplace, there is often a serious issue that confronts group creativity. Many employees shut down their creativity when their own work has been criticized, in which case, directors often avoid criticizing work which negatively impacts the quality and abundance of creativity (De Dren et al., n.d.).

Are We Living in a Moral Stone Age Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Are We Living in a Moral Stone Age - Essay Example To illustrate her main argument, the author cites an interview done by Jay Leno in Tonight Show. Based on this interview, Sommers points out that the youth nowadays do not read the Bible, and they cannot tell what is right from wrong. The technique of using the interview is similar to telling an anecdote to attract the interest of her readers. The interview conducted with the two college students serves as the springboard to the discussion. The story attracts the attention of the readers with its humorous yet sarcastic content. The content of the interview also challenges the readers to provide their own response to the interview questions. The interview by Jay Leno functions as logos. It challenges the mind of the readers to think of the right answer to the questions posted by the host. Additionally, the result of the interview provides a basis for the author’s argument. Sommers provides the evidence first before explaining her point. The interview additionally functions as e thos. In particular, the familiarity of the readers with Jay Leno and his program, Tonight Show helps to establish credibility. Sommers relies on the credibility of Jay Leno to initially convince her readers. Nevertheless, even those who are not acquainted with Jay Leno and his show would still give merit to the given example taking into consideration that the show appears regularly on TV, and the interview called â€Å"man-on-the-street† is conducted â€Å"frequently† by the host. Readers may opine that a regular show such as Tonight Show will not stay long on national TV if it is not credible enough. Hence, one can claim that Sommers used a very good example to win her readers’ attention. Sommers further uses ethos as she mentions being a professor of ethics. This technique establishes her credibility in giving opinions on ethical issues. She cites her personal observations to further demonstrate her view. Considering her as a professor, her readers may consid er her insights valuable because they are based on her professional experience. Therefore, informing readers of her position as a college professor makes Sommers a more credible and experienced writer in the minds of the readers. Furthermore, Sommers uses pathos to convince her readers. After identifying herself as a professor of ethics, she expresses her concern for the American youth, saying, â€Å"One of the best things our schools can do for America is to set about repairing it — by confronting the moral nihilism that is now the norm for so many students.† Coming from a professor, this statement demonstrates that Sommers is genuinely concerned about the morals of students. Noting her concern, readers will be convinced of the author’s truthfulness, hence view her as a highly credible writer. Sommers divides her ideas into subheadings. Each subheading hints on a different angle of the issue, which allows the author to expound her ideas further. The first subhe ading is titled, â€Å"Conceptual Moral Chaos.† This part works in two ways. First, it implies the limitations of her scope. Second, it further builds the confidence of her readers on her claim. Reading this part fully will give readers an idea of what Sommers is pertaining to when she claims that â€Å"young people are morally confused.† Her claim about the youth may sound too judgmental for a young reader who would possibly feel skeptical about the claim. However, reading

Criminal Justice, What are the affects of victimization on victims and Research Paper

Criminal Justice, What are the affects of victimization on victims and their families - Research Paper Example This is because they and their families experience long lasting physical, emotional and psychological damage after being treated unjustly. Victims sometimes get to suffer from the effects of victimization for the rest of their lives, the greatest effect being psychological in nature according to Hess and Orthmann (28). The effects of victimization can be felt short term or long term. Whatever the duration that it takes, the negative effects of victimization are often difficult to mitigate according to Lerner and Montada (25). Victimized people get confused, frustrated, fearful and angry, at worst going through trauma. They forever want answers as to why they experienced whatever happened and why it happened to them. Despite the victims having knowledge of who did that to them and where to go to get help and justice, they always fear and feel insecure. This is because they may not know who to trust and rely on for help and support. Victimized persons and their families suffer a lot physically, psychologically, emotionally and financially (Lerner and Montada 32). Furthermore, they are sometimes over burdened by the complexity of the criminal justice system. People who are victimized many times find it very difficult to believe and accept that they have become victims of crime and that there is nothing they can do about it. Initially, they make themselves believe that the crime occurred in their dreams and not in reality hence they live in great denial. These reactions may last for some months or even years depending on how traumatized a victim is according to Lerner and Montada (54). It is common for victims to act like children and get taken care of by other people surrounding them. Victims get emotions like anger, guilt, grief, shame, confusion, frustration and fear. Some victims get angry with their offenders, family members, friends, service providers, the criminal justice system and even themselves. Victims have a strong desire to get even and bring

The Love Lab Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Love Lab - Essay Example What it takes to sustain a relationship: Gottman Dr. Gottman has suggested several things in the video. First of all, he has advised to get rid of ‘The Four Horsemen of Apocalypse’, insisting that couples tend to create misunderstanding as well as bitterness among themselves by criticizing each other’s actions or thought. Also, sarcasm, cynicism, offending gestures, mockery, indirect insult and other negative behaviors tear two people apart. Stonewalling and defensiveness also prevents spouses from discussing problems with each other. Therefore, according to Dr. Gottman, it is absolutely essential that whenever any occasion of dispute takes place, at least one partner must try to ‘settle’ down or ‘divert’ the topic (Gehart 337). To settle disputes in marriages, Dr. Gottman advised the couples for ‘couple therapy’ and weekend workshops. He also held the view that to sustain a marriage a couple must take certain initiatives lik e building ‘love- maps’ and must share fondness and good memories. Some admiration needs to be present among partners. Above all, they must concentrate on their marriage and hold a positive attitude. This would help in creation of a shared meaning and help the partners to achieve their ambitions and aspirations. Views about the video ‘The Love Lab’ The viewers could understand every details of therapy, or love- procedure of Dr. Gottman. With no extra efforts put on special effects, the video seems to capture a single day of ‘The Love Lab’, more precisely the couple of hours required for diagnosing a couple. At the beginning of the video which is less than five minutes in length, one finds an apparently- happy couple entering the love lab. All the characters who appear in the video look very convincing and rea - including Dr, Gottman himself, his assistants, and ‘happy and not-so- happy’ couples who walk to the ‘The Love Labâ €™ (The Love Lab). Though the video lacks fineness of quality and precision, but nowhere does it fails achieve its objective. One could not trace any sign of extravagance or grandeur on the backgrounds. Rather sometimes it gives the impression of a well-lit moderate apartment. The female- voice protagonist never comes in the front, but provides description and analysis of single action and shift of focus in the video- staring from the type and subject matter of questions that are asked, oral history interview, symptoms of a strongly- connected couple, etc. Soon after this, the video monitors the backstage of the research lab, where highly- trained observers analyze reactions of couple using a special type of coding system. The video shows the whole procedure step by step. Later on the video captures the activities of the couples and research technicians during ‘conflict discussion’. A glance of computers with special type of coding system and other the equipments im plies that Dr. Gottman’s ideologies are based on scientific grounds. The female- voice protagonist simultaneously describes the aspects or parameters of analysis- blood velocity, flooding, fidgeting, sweating palms, heat beats, facial expressions, body movements, and topics of disagreement like disagreement about finances, or maintenance of kids, how they met, warm affectionate memories, etc. Video tapes are used to record minute facial expressions which are later on analyzed using specific codes. At the end of therapy, these tapes are preserved for

Proposed amendment Essay Example for Free

Proposed amendment Essay Brief Presentation of Issue The 9/11 tragedy has led the US Federal Government to enact laws of national security that crosses all boarders. On October 2001, the US Congress has passed into law the US Patriot Act which formulates homeland security measures and combating burdens of the State on vulnerabilities and risks of present and future terrorist threat. The US Patriot Act of 2001 was the first enacted law that legally addresses the strong counter-terrorism measures of the US government that empowers all rules and regulations of the state’s homeland security. All US government agencies were enjoined to formulate a national and international operating guidelines relating to addressing a firmer global counter-terrorism policies and strategic sharing of burdens of information with allied international governments. The timeline of enforcement of the US Patriot Act of 2001 has accounted serious human errors in the conduct of enforcement to which the standard operating procedures constituted by the rules of court have been summarily neglected and to the point of being grossly deviated, specifically in serving search and arrest warrants that is likewise violating the 4th Amendment of the Bill of Rights. The issue of encroachment of the rules of court in issuance of search and arrest warrant has become a constitutional concern of the US Congress and the United Nation’s Commission on Human Rights (Leggiere, P. 2004). Framing of An Amendment to Search and Seizure Order The above cited issues has come the proposal to supplement the 4th Amendment of the Bill of Rights that constitutes the provision on search and seizure. The 4th Amendment may be therefore supplemented with an enabling clause as an Amendment on specific provision that states: â€Å"Constitutional liabilities in the issuance of search and seizure order. † A Brief Resolution of the Proposed Amendment The following proposed resolution formulates and creates the enabling clause of the Amendment: â€Å"Whereas, be it known that the facade of human error in the conduct of search and seizure may infringe the performance and call of duty in safeguarding the national security and protecting the lives of citizenry, and may violate the civil and constitutional rights of every citizens of the state and the immigrants;† â€Å"Whereas, be it further known that deviation and neglect in issuing search and seizure order may not constitutionally uphold the enforcement of such law and jeopardize the 4th Amendment of the Bill of Rights;† â€Å"Be it resolved, as it is hereby resolve that the proposed amendment shall state the provision of Constitutional liabilities in the issuance of search and seizure order,† that shall egally address the unauthorized and illegal search and seizure prior to the proceedings of proper and appropriate Court of laws. † Thus, the Amendment on â€Å"Constitutional liabilities in the issuance of search and seizure order† seeks to uphold the constitutional right of every state citizen and immigrants and deterrence to commission of human error of conducting authorities. Exploratory Issues to the Amendment The â€Å"constitutional liabilities in the issuance of search and seizure order† emanates an action that supplant the human error, as may be singled out in the performance and call of duty, and the flaws of government directives, authorization and function that engages constitutional liabilities in the conduct of search and seizure. Given the fact that despite the continuing violation of human rights, the human error and flaws of authorities are not given due response by the Court of law due to the absence of fundamental and legal precedents that shall interpret the violation. Likewise, the human error itself defeats 6th Amendment of the Bill of Rights wherein the fair trial composes the right of a person to be served with proper procedure prior to prosecution. To cite a relative incident, we can quote the disclosure of Phil Leggiere (2004) who stated in his investigative article, that: â€Å" the US Congress and Senate approve the Military Commissions Act, which authorizes torture and strips non-US citizen detainees (suspected of terrorist ties) of the right of habeas corpus—which includes formal charges, counsel and hearings—and also empowers the US president at his discretion to declare US citizens as enemy combatants and subject to detention without charge or due process†. The above cited disclosure further stated that, in so far as the US Court of law is concerned, the constitutional liability of the US government authority that has been directly involved is still pending for court interpretation and documentation of circumstantial facts. Obviously, the violation boils down to the presumed call of duty and in the name of national security to which the constitutional liability is impeded to surface (Leggiere 2004). Pros and Cons Pros. The primary advantage of adopting the proposed Amendment would enable a legal precedent that shall formally address the constitutional liability of the human error and the fine tuning of the US government authorities in the conduct of enforcement. The Court of law shall then recognize the pleadings of human right violations from the circumstance of complex conduct of search and seizure. The parliamentary procedure and judicial process may use the proposed Amendment as an examining tool on the extent and scope of violations wherein qualification and determination of offense shall be dealt with both civil and criminal punishment. Above all the benefits of the proposed Amendment is the articulation and emphasis of the search and seizure application to which the people, and specifically the victims of mistaken identity, shall be safeguarded from harm of circumstantial neglect, denial and justification of acquiring national security measures. Cons What could be claimed as a disadvantage upon the passage of the proposed Amendment is the dysfunction in covert and strategic operation in homeland security management. The dysfunction could be a vague issue but could be a burden in gathering of intelligence information for suspected terrorists and enemies of the state. However, in today’s application of advanced cyber-technologies, the US authorities may ultimately resort and rely on such expensive tools that may be useful enough for intelligence reconnaissance. Although it is still a common knowledge and understanding that the CIA still rely on the so-called open-source information relative to legal, Para-legal and covert extraction (Elsea, J. K. 2004). At this point of view, the covert extraction of information from sources (which could have been a result of torture), would be employed by the proposed Amendment. In which case, expose’ of information in the open court may bring vulnerability of covert operation. However, in that regard, there may be a venue to contain the inquiry on constitutional liabilities. Conclusion The Bill of Rights represents the people itself in the annals of democratic fundamentals. It is where the Constitution is made to uphold the moral virtues of citizenry and the government that represent them. Without the moral virtues of a constitution, a volatile and fragile democracy negates the human rights. It is therefore a moral obligation of every citizen in various governments to protect and lead into vanguard the proliferation of moral ascendancy for their rights above all the creation of the fundamental law of the land. References American Homepage. The Bill of Rights. Retrieved February 14, 2008 from http://ahp. gatech. edu/bill_of_rights_1789. html. Bruns, R. A. (1986). A More Perfect Union: The Creation of the United States Constitution. National Archives and Records Administration, National Archives Trust Fund Board, Washington, DC. Retrieved February 14, 2008 from http://www. archives. gov/national-archives- experience/charters/print_friendly. html? page=constitution_history_content. htmltitle=NARA%20%7C%20The%20Constitution%20of%20the%20United%20States%3A%20A%20History. Human Rights Watch (2004). Immigrants’ Rights under Attack in House Bill (H. R. 10). Retrieved February 14, 2008 from http://www. hrw. org/english/docs/2004/10/06/usdom9469. htm. Jennifer K. Elsea, J. K.(2004). U. S. Treatment of Prisoners in Iraq: Selected Legal Issues. CRS Report for Congress. Retrieved February 14, 2008 from http://www. us. gov/RL32395/pdf. Leggiere, P. (2004). Bill of Rights Under Bush: A Timeline. Mondo Globo Alpha. Retrieved February 14, 2008 from http://mondoglobo. ning. com/group/questionauthority/forum/topic/show? id=1509099%3ATopic%3A2937. Rapczynski, J. (2000). Search and Seizure. Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute. Retrieved February 14, 2008 from http://www. yale. edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/2000/2/00. 02. 04. x. html. Rodley, N. S. (1999). The Treatment of Prisoners Under International Law. Oxford Press, 2nd Edition. Retrieved February 14, 2008 from http://books. google. com/books? id=pOpdOyPn36ECpg=PA3lpg=PA3dq=protocol+on+treatment+of+war+prisonerssource=webots=vmMso_Qs-3sig=C2BMjcTvmC. Yale University (2007). 1996-2007: The Avalon Project at Yale Law School. The Lillian Goldman Law Library in Memory of Sol Goldman, 127 Wall Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06520. Retrieved February 14, 2008 from http://www. yale. edu/lawweb/avalon/lawofwar/geneva03. htm.

Facilitation Theory Or The Humanist Approach?

Facilitation Theory Or The Humanist Approach? Teaching and learning today are completely different from yesterday because we are facing the challenges of changes in higher education for the future prosperity with todays young students and their readiness to take up these challenges to face up to the coming centuries. Understanding teaching and learning is not easy, not something that can be based on the representation of what has been perceived or limited to a few methodological prescriptions. In this chapter, we are going to go back and shed light on some theories of learning to understand better to what extent teaching is related to learning and how they can impact in society. 1.1 languages Teaching and Learning Language teaching and learning still requires much effort to be stored in individuals mind perfectly. It should have acquired an appreciation of the values of a broad range of intellectual disciplines such as linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics and mainly applied linguistics as well as general detailed knowledge. So, how can language pass on these disciplines to become dynamic and pragmatic in use? To answer this question, let us see what Campells theory depicts, in figure 1 below, about the relationship between three disciplines: linguistics, applied linguistics and pedagogy. Campbell ( 1980:7) says: The relation between the language sciences and language teaching has emerged as one of the key issues in the development of a language teaching theory à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦For him: Applied linguistics is the mediator between the practitioner and the theorist.. See Fundamental concepts of language teaching book of H.H.Stern,(1983:36) Linguistics Applied linguistics Pedagogy Theoretician Mediator Practitioner Figure1 Campells model of the relationship between theory and practice According to Campells theory starting from linguistics, the scientific study of language, alone is not enough to get an effective relation between pedagogy and linguistics. The latter requires much practice to relate theory to practice and make language more effective. For that reason, to consolidate the three disciplines, Campell included three extra elements to his conceptual framework. These elements are psychology, sociology and anthropology. Campells model of the relationship between theory and practice made Spolsky( 1980:72) argued and then modified Campbells theory .For Spolsky, sociolinguistics discipline is very interesting to achieve a good result in the relation between theoreticians and practitioner. He divided language teaching into three main sources: Language description: General Linguistics Language teaching: psychology for the theory of learning and psycholinguistics for the theory of language learning Language use in society : sociolinguistics What we can understand from Sposkys theory language teaching is an interesting amalgam of disciplines, each one contributes to educational language in practice and the focus here is on the educational language. Pragmatically speaking, according to many people the understanding of language is not only learning theories but it is also our reflection and thinking of knowing to what extent can be these theories impact on the teaching of language. The theories are different of how we learn, and they are useful and ready for how students learn and also how teachers teach. Each one of them, student and teachers, has own way of thinking of own different way of learning. So who are we in these theories? And what are these theories? To answer these questions let us see some fundamental theories of learning: 1.2.1 Reinforcement Theory This theory was developed by the behaviourist school of psychology, notably by B.F. Skinner (Laird 1985, Burns 1995). Laird (1985) sees this aspect of behaviourism not relevant to education. It is about some positive and negative tasks the learners made in his daily life. This theory requires much Competency Based Training ( henceforth, CBT), It is useful in learning repetitive tasks like multiplication tables and those work skills that require a great deal of practice but higher order learning is not involved in it. The criticism of this approach is that it is rigid and mechanical (Burns 1995). 1.1.3 Cognitive-Gestalt Approaches The focus in this theory is on the importance of experience, meaning, problem-solving and the development of insights (Burns 1995, p 112). Burns notes that this theory has developed the concept that individuals differ from one to another, they have different concerns at different times with different subjective interpretations in different contexts. This theory is very close to learners to get themselves in learning language by knowing to what extent they are different from each other. It is also very close to the learners characteristics of today (for more details see chapter 3) 1.1.4 Holistic Learning Theory The basic understanding of this theory is that the focus is on the composition of the individual personality which consists of many elementsspecifically the intellect, emotions, the body impulse (or desire), intuition and imagination (Laird,1985, p 121) that all require activation if learning is to be effective. This theory is about a complementary theory to Cognitive-Gestalt approaches. 1.1.5 Experiential learning In this theory, Kolbs research found that people learn in four ways in learning (McGill Beaty 1995). The ways are as follows: Concrete experience Testing implications of Observations and Reflections concepts in new situations Formation of abstract concepts and generalization Figure 1 the Experiential Learning Model (Kolb, 1981) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Learning through concrete experience à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Learning through observation and reflection à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Learning through abstract conceptualization à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Learning through active experimentation In discussing these theories, we confirm from the educational researchers concept that learners are different in their way of learning. Kolb, one of these educational researchers whose interests are involved in proving that learner, individually, can choose any style and way of learning which reflects his behaviour to act in learning which is the link between him and his society through actions and reflective process (McGill Beaty 1995). This theory confirms Spolskys argument ( 1980:72) 1.1.6 Facilitation Theory or the Humanist Approach Carl Rogers and others have developed the theory of facilitative learning. The basic introduction to this theory is that learning will occur by the educator acting as a facilitator, that is by establishing an atmosphere in which learners feel comfortable to consider new ideas and are not threatened by external factors (Laird 1985). Other characteristics of this theory include: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Human beings must be eager to learn (prompt willingness) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Human beings must be curious to learn (curiosity) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ To change on selfs concept we must be involved in a significant learning. ( flexibility and readiness). Carl and Rogers see that: The Characteristics of Facilitative Teachers are: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They are not more protective of their beliefs than other teachers à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They are affectionate they are all listening to learners, especially to their feelings à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They are much attentive to their relationship with learners in the classroom. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ be open-minded and apt to accept feedback, whether positive or negative and to use it as a reflective and constructive insight into themselves and their behaviours. Some of these characteristics do fit our changes into innovative and modern teachers but others still to be modified according to our readiness for being autonomous teachers. In this work, we are going to focus on the changes from the traditional, affectionate and facilitative teachers into modern teachers. The characteristics of learners: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Must be courageous, autonomous and responsible for their own learning à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Must care and provide much information (input) for the learning which occurs through their deep perception (insights) and experiences. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ are encouraged to evaluate themselves before their teachers and to be aware of their learning needs to focus on what factors may contribute to achieving significant results. These characteristics are mandatory and required in the new systems implementation. To understand better this theory which impacts strongly our work we must understand the relationship between teachers and learners or in another words between learning and teaching as well as the strategies made to enhance this relationship. So what is learning and what is teaching? And what is the relationship between them. Teaching is to get and pass on knowledge while learning is to acquire this knowledge by studies; it is also the process where knowledge is created through transformation of experience (see page 3 David Kolb 1981). It seems that the relation between them is very strong and interrelated. From these definitions, we can also understand that the relationships between teaching and learning lead to the best academic achievement for students having the desire to acquire learning language which represents an individuals receptive cognition to learning different tasks depend on the context (Peterson, et al., 2009). It is an input which differs from one individual to another depends on the teachers in regard to what type of information is most effective. The concept that students and teachers have different competence that vary from one to another to learning and teaching language in different styles and ways lead theoreticians and practitioners, those who are responsible for curriculum control and revision, to think of the curriculum framework, i.e. how to be in charge of approaches and systems to structure teaching language and planned in the curriculum frame work. The curriculum is now very interesting to empower both learners and teachers to develop their potential in knowledge. So, what is Curriculum? Who are responsible for planning it? And what is it for? To respond to these questions we need first understand the curriculum meaning. 1.2 What is Curriculum? The curriculum is concerned with two terms teaching and learning, i.e. what is given in learning and teaching, and how they take place. What teachers teach or learners learn comprises aims, strategy, knowledge, skills and outcomes of learning students are intended to make obvious. The how of the curriculum concern teaching/learning methodology, teaching strategies and media resources. The curriculum has been changed due to changes in systems implementation such as CBA, LMD and ICTs integration in the classroom. The latter needs some cases of the invention of new technology to modify the content and enlarge knowledge to make a good curriculum. The systems , CBA, LMD and ICTs integration, in many ways can be seen to be affecting the curriculum both in terms of content and methodology. Further, we mean by the word curriculum run a Course, i.e. it describes a series of steps in teaching and learning specific contents. It is also considered as a sequence of learning experiences; the fact of these definitions that without curriculum none can control the individual students experiences. Thus through curriculum students can be provided with opportunities to learn a specific content. From the latter, we can understand also that the suitable definition to the curriculum is a sequence learning opportunities given to students in their study for specific purposes. A sequence of learning opportunities cannot be seen but it can be planned and made through the classroom activities. Thus, curriculum appears in different aspects which exist in textbooks for specific contents to facilitate teaching and make teachers efficient to pave this sequence of learning opportunities for students. It is actually made to develop learners competence; herein we are speaking about the importance of curriculum development 1.3 The Importance of Curriculum Development The importance of curriculum development appears in its focus on knowledge transmission and skills development in regard with competency based language teaching (henceforth CBLT) or learning outcomes. That is to say, working on the four skills (reading, speaking, writing and listening), knowledge and attitudes make effective teaching strategies. In relation to CBLT, Docking says that: CBLT [Competency-Based Language Teaching] is designed not around the notion of subject knowledge but around the notion of competency. The focus moves from what students know about language to what they can do with it. The focus on competencies or learning outcomes underpins the curriculum framework and syllabus specification, teaching strategies and assessment. (Docking, 1994: 16) From the above quotation basing on what have been already said, we can understand that Competencies focus on four main parameters appears in the following: Learning outcomes Curriculum Syllabus Teaching strategies (a course) Assessment Figure 1: The Main Parameters of Learning Outcomes or Competencies Figure one represents the relationship between curriculum and its aspects (syllabus, teaching strategies and assessment) in regard with learning outcomes. These four fundamental concepts help theoreticians and practitioners to define the context in relation to the students needs about the curriculum framework which is clearly related to students learning needs. To respond to learning needs and CBLT the curriculum planning must take care of the following points: Setting: Students number, age, gender, purpose, education Aim: Type and purpose of course, mandatory and required tests . Materials needed or available: text, books, e- books, magazines, articles or computers, laptops with their connection to the net and so forth. Time: How many hours, day of week, time of day. These four points can also be viewed as part of syllabus. The latter is very important to design a course that must focus on the needs of learning outcomes. Herein, to understand more the concepts given let us have a look at what is a course in regard with syllabus or vice versa. 1.3.1 Course A course is an integrated series of teaching-learning experiences, whose ultimate aim is to lead the learners to a particular state of knowledge. (Hutchinson and Waters 1996: 65) The distinction between a curriculum and a course is important because some of the areas of concern in curriculum development as: societal needs analysis, testing for placement purposes or program wide evaluation may be out of the hands of teachers who are developing courses (Richards, 2001). 1.3.2 Syllabuses Syllabus is a more detailed and operational statement of teaching and learning elements which translates the philosophy of the curriculum into a series of planned steps leading towards more narrowly defined objectives at each level Dubin Olshtain, (1997: 28), Syllabus is essentially a statement of what should be taught, year by year through language syllabuses often also contain points about the method of teaching and the time to be taken (Lee 1980:108). Another opinion is that that Syllabus is a more detailed and operational statement of teaching and learning elements which translates the philosophy of the curriculum into a series of planned steps leading towards more narrowly defined objectives at each level Dubin Olshtain, (1997: 28). Syllabuses are more localized and are based on accounts and records of what actually happens at the classroom level. Given these definitions it is suggested that it seems helpful to define a curriculum and a syllabus as separate entities. To conclude we can now ensure that we can see syllabus design as part of course design, they are complementary and parts of curriculum whose importance appears also in the following: The educational purpose of the program. The content teaching procedures and learning experience which will be necessary to achieve this purpose .(the means) Some means for assessing whether or not the educational ends have been achieved. ( Richards, Platt and Platt 1993: 94) From these most significant points Allen sees that: Curriculum is a very general concept which involves consideration of the whole complex of philosophical, social and administrative factors which contribute to the planning of an educational program. (Allen quoted in Nunan, 2000: 6) Thus, it is the change of instructions in teaching and learning in all over the world. For that reason, most developing countries institutions among them Algerian institutions have amended and revised their curricula in another words their syllabuses, methods, approaches and systems to respond to the world requirements, taking into account the various factors( external or internal) that influence learning process. To understand more this policy of education we must understand its basic notions in the structural education such as competencies or learning outcomes, syllabus, course, assessment and curriculum. Today, there are many of teachers and students who think that curriculum is syllabus; in fact, syllabus is a part of a curriculum. It describes the content of a course .i.e. It shows the content of what is going to be taught including a set of knowledge and skills. Herein, the importance of presenting the basic notions education is to go over the global changes and structures of the various disciplines to learn from others and to be apt to know what others think of us. In addition to curriculum development made by policy makers which enables learning to take place, during the course of study, in terms of knowledge and skills, teachers should highlight the main syllabus to present the main learning and methods and to provide the learners with resources and equipments to support the effective teaching of the course. In this case the teacher notion must focus on how to structure the knowledge to be well received by learners. The following quotation ensures our saying the learning structure through teaching. Teaching is knowledge transmission, management of learning. The teacher is a decision maker, provider of learning structure, collaborator, and resource. (Adapted from Graves 2000: 31) Our aim from understanding the curriculum development and its importance is to ensure a successful and effective teaching of the language through official curriculum delivered by policy makers to be implemented in schools and universities. Implementing such curriculum requires much effort to respond to the learners needs and competence. Algeria as one of developing countries and a multilingual schooling is in the process of growing out of its historical roots run riot to make changes in educational policy encouraging the education ministry to revise, modify and update the curriculum for basic education, particularly in basic education programs. Speaking about changes in educational programs and organizing content lead us to think of the CBA approach and LMD system that are the fundamental concepts, today, of the curriculum whose interests are in organizing and exploring learners competence (knowledge and skills). They both work on input (data/ knowledge) and outcomes. The question to be raised here what are these implementations? These systems implementations are CBA approach in primary and secondary schools and LMD system in universities. 1.4 Historical Background about CBA In 1973, the word competency was introduced to psychology literature when David McClelland argued in his article Testing for competence rather than for intelligence that neither job performance nor success can be got through old and traditional tests of academic discipline. Thus, the search for theory and tools that could unfailingly see coming effectiveness in the workplace began (McClelland, 1973). In1982 it was Boyatzis who first drew together comprehensive data that had been collected inthe USA using the McBer Company Job Competence Assessment method. Since then, competency has become a significant factor in HR development practices (Simpson, 2002). The word competency comes from a Latin word meaning suitable (Bueno Tubbs, 2004). Boyatzis (1982) defines a competency as an underlying characteristic of a person which results in effective and/or superior performance in a job (p. 97). According to Boyatzis (1982) a job competency represents ability. An individuals set of Contemporary Management Research 49 competencies reflect their capability or what they can do. A job competency may be a motive, trait, skill, aspect of ones self-image or social role, or a body of knowledge that an individual uses, and the existence and possession of these characteristics may or may not be known to the individual. Similarly, Mitrani et al. (1992) state that competencies could be motives, traits, self-concepts, attitudes or values, content knowledge, or cognitive or behavioral skills. A competency is an individual characteristic that can be measured or counted reliably and that can be shown to differentiate significantly between superior and average performers, or between effective and ineffective performers. Meanwhile, competency can be described as a set of behavior patterns that an incumbent needs to bring to a position in order to perform its tasks and functions in the delivery of desired results or outcomes (Bartram, et. al, 2002; Woodruffe, 1992). Spencer and Spencer (1993) viewed competency as an underlying characteristic of an individual that is causally related to criterion-referenced effective and/or superior performance in a job or situation (p. 9). They recognized five types of competency characteristics consisting of motives, traits, self-concept, knowledge and skills. First, motives are the things that an individual consistently thinks about or wants that stimulate action. Motives drive, direct and select behavior toward certain actions or goals and away from others. Second, traits are physical characteristics and consistent responses to situations or information. Third, self-concept is an individuals attitudes, values or self-image. Fourth, knowledge is the information that an individual has in specific content areas. Finally, skill is the ability to perform a certain physical or mental task. Knowledge and skill competencies tend to be visible and relatively surface characteristics, whereas self-concept, traits and motive competencies are more hidden, deeper and central to personality. Surface knowledge and skill competencies are relatively easy to develop and training is the most cost-effective way to secure those employee abilities (Spencer Spencer, 1993). Figure 1 illustrates central and surface competencies. Knowledge Attitudes, Values Trait Motive Surface: Most easily developed Core Personality: Most difficult to develop Skill Knowledge Self-Concept Trait Motive T Skill Knowledge Self-concept Trait Motive tr The Iceberg Visible Hidden Figure 1 The Iceberg Model and Central and Surface Competencies Source: Spencer and Spencer (1993: 11) In other words, visible competencies such as knowledge and skills may be somewhat technical competencies basically required by the job, whereas hidden competencies such as self-concept, traits and motives are behavioral competencies that drive an individuals performance in the job. Boyatzis (1982) states that motive and trait competencies have the most direct impact on self-concept and also have an impact on skill. The United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO, 2002) defines competency as a set of skills, related knowledge and attributes that allow an individual to perform a task or activity within a specific function or job. If an individual possesses these three elements of competency they can effectively perform duties as required by the specific job. From the wide range of related literature, the definition of competency can be summarized as an underlying characteristic of an individual that is causally related to criterion-referenced effective and/or superior performance in a job or situation. Job competency is a set of behavior patterns that a job incumbent needs to bring to a position in order to perform its tasks and functions with competence. A job competency can be a motive, trait, skill, self-concept, body of knowledge or an attribute that allows an individual to perform a task or activity within a specific function or job. 1.4 The Implementation of the CBA Approach in the Algerian Classroom The CBA approach has been adopted by the Algerian education ministry to be integrated in the primaries and secondary school to improve teaching and learning. It is imposed on both teachers and learners to explore their competence and roles in lifecycle. A competency based approach is a new reform contributes to better the learners knowledge situations that may varied in a range of skills. The CBA is closely related to a context-of-use. In other words, students will be good learners to use language effectively in their lifecycle by drawing a map to master what they have learned in schools. 1.5 The reasons of the CBA Approach Implementation in the Classroom The reasons why the Algerian authoritarians those who are responsible for educational policy implement the CBA approach in the primary and secondary school classrooms is to develop students linguistic and problem-solving capacities that will make students to deal with different tasks cognitively and pragmatically challenging any difficult situation in the classroom. It will also make learners autonomous and see learning as an essential process for both their studies and their future. So it is implemented in schools because it is a productive approach basing on what the learners are expected to do rather than on what they are expected to learn about. 1.6 The Characteristics of the CB Approach The CBA approach enables learners to check their capacity to overcome obstacles and problems; it is problem- solving approaches that make learners think of well doing. It is a creative use of a newly constructive knowledge. Moreover, it characteristics can be listed as follows: It makes students challengers to endure and encounter all kind of complexity and ambiguity in learning. It is about reflection, self-assessment, and performance review are fully integrated into the exercise. As a result, challenge becomes success. Collaboration in teamwork is essential to the effective learning experience. It enables students competence to affect the world beyond the classroom and to make contributions that are valued by professional and experts. It provides learners with information based on assessment tasks. It is based on authentic language proficiency across sociolinguistic context. It reveals the learners innateness. It is usable for instruction and curriculum adaptation to the learners needs. It is based on the outcomes as in Schencks saying: It is outcome-based and is adaptive to the changing needs of students, teachers and the community à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ competencies differ from other students goals and objectives in that they describe the students ability to apply basic end other skills in situations that are communally encountered in everyday life. Thus CBE (Competency Based Education) is based on a set of outcomes that are derived in life role situations. Schenck (2001:14) To reinforce what has been said about CBE let us see some extra definitions of Competency Based Education to understand better from where does CBA come from? Richards and Rodgers (2001) says: Competency Based Education focuses on outcomes of learning. CBEaddresses what the learners are expected to do rather than on what they are expected to learn about. CBE emerged in the United States in the 1970s and refers to an educational movement that advocates defining educational goals in terms of precise measurable descriptions of knowledge, skills, and behaviors students should possess at the end of a course of study. Richards and Rodgers(2001) To reinforce Richards and Rodgerss definition of CBE Savage see that CBE is a functional approach to focus on skills depends on the learners needs and competence. He sees in his definition the following: Competency Based Education is a functional approach to education that emphasizes life skills and evaluates mastery of those skills according to actual leaner performance. It was defined by the U.S. Office of Education as a performance-based process leading to demonstrated mastery of basic and life skills necessary for the individual to function proficiently in society. Savage (1993: 15) For Mrowicki, referring to skills only is not enough in speaking about CBE because competency is an interesting amalgam of knowledge and attitudes for more effective results. Thus he sees in his definition the following: Competencies consist of a description of the essential skills, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors required for effective performance of a real-world task or activity. These activities may be related to any domain of life, though have typically been linked to the field of work and to social survival in a new environment. Mrowicki (1986: 144) It is very interesting to understand what we have presented as most significant definitions of CBE regarding the Communicative Approach which is at the basis of the Competency Based Approach, the educational system applied in Algeria, and which can be also considered to be at the basis of the LMD system applied at the level of the University, next section is devoted to the presentation of the latter, i.e. of the LMD system, to see in what way is the LMD system a continuation of the CBA. 1.7 What is LMD? The LMD system, introduced in the Algerian universities by 2003-2004, is a current issue that specialists in Algeria and elsewhere are interested in. The LMD system (Licence, Master and Doctorate) is the latest reform applied in the Algerian universities. It aims at bringing the Algerian diploma to the universality and to bring the Algerian student to a higher level of learning on the one hand and to the world of job on the other hand. The introduction of LMD in the Algerian universities should be accompanied by these new ideas for innovative teaching practices to improve the performance of the university system but also lead to greater employability of graduates. 1.8 The Characteristics of the LMD System In practice, we observe that the formalization of thes